PART A: THEORETICAL BACKGROUND

WHAT IS NON-FORMAL EDUCATION

Kinds of learning

​​​​Education is an essential concept which lies at the basis of mankind's history. It is the way through which people acquire or impart knowledge, the way a society, a country, a culture, transmits information from generation to generation and the tool people use to improve their lives and attitudes. Education enhances individuals’ abilities to identify their objectives, tackle and solve issues in innovative ways, and finally, reach their targeted goals. In other words, education is what makes people develop and progress over time (Types of Education, 2019).

To have a broader understanding of this concept, it is important to analyze the three main kinds of learning: Formal, Informal, and Non-Formal learning.

Formal Learning

Formal learning refers to intentional learning that usually occurs in governmental recognized settings (such as primary and secondary schools, colleges, and universities). It is structured hierarchically; it requires the presence of trained teachers who should efficiently provide youth with the knowledge needed, and students whose role should be enthusiastically willing to acquire it. These contexts are characterized by strict rules and regulations, detailed curricula designed to meet the requirements needed to be part of the society, and tests and certifications that, respectively, assess and prove the achievement of those requirements (Peace Corps, 2004).

Advantages and Disadvantages of Formal Learning

Among the main advantages of learning in formally organized institutions, it is recognized that knowledge instilled in a systematic and disciplined way encourages students to improve their organizational and schedule arrangement skills. In these settings, education is a natural and continuous process that is supposed to become more accurate and meticulous according to the different phases of the education process. In this way, learners progress constantly and gradually, and, eventually, are granted with officially recognized certificates of the knowledge they have acquired, which allow them to enter the labour market. 

At the same time, formal education also carries some relevant disadvantages. First, the inflexibility through which knowledge is imparted does not meet the needs of all different types of learners. Usually, the information is presented as written statements or theories, which may be difficult to process and internalize by a student who, for example, relies on visual and auditory inputs. Likewise, the knowledge assessment system, which is largely dependent in tests and exams, is strict and unidirectional and may fail in providing objective information about one’s knowledge. It is known that some learners can find exams and tests so stressful and anxious-provoking that it becomes difficult for them to prove what they have learned. This educational method can, thus, lead to asymmetrical and not always reliable results.

Finally, due to the focus on theoretical knowledge, formal education does not help young adults to be competitive in the labour market. Some skills, like decision-making, proactiveness, self-awareness, initiative, negotiation, communication, team-work, creativity and so on, are neglected by this main traditional way of teaching. This leads to a gap between what students learn in schools and universities and what they need to compete in the labour market.

Informal learning

Informal learning refers to learning that happens daily, continuously, and mostly incidentally in people’s everyday environment. Since it is not exclusively linked to delimited areas such as schools, it can take place at any time everywhere. It can happen when talking to neighbours, listening to the radio, playing with children or more actively by reading a book or asking some advice to colleagues at work (Peace Corps, 2004).

Advantages and Disadvantages of Informal Learning

Learning informally is simple and natural and for this reason, it is considered to be a never-ending process. Even though it is initiated by the individual, the conscious efforts are not involved, it is not planned in advance and, moreover, it does not require any particular learning methods (no fixed curricula nor timetables). This allows people to get information with different techniques in a less costly and more time-efficient way. There is no need to hire professionals since it is possible to find the knowledge on books, TV, newspapers, internet, and it can even happen that experts may be willing to share for free what they know through social media.

On the other hand, the information acquired can be unreliable and misleading or obtained through inappropriate or time-wasting methods, whereas the absence of a proper schedule can prevent the learner from developing good habits and discipline (Types of Education, 2019).

Non-formal learning

Non-formal learning happens through educational experiential activities which are planned, structured, and organized like the formal activities but, instead of taking place in formal learning environments, they are carried out, for example, in youth organizations, sports clubs, community centres, readings groups, amateur choirs and so on. These activities are the result of the intentional effort of the learner, who - consciously and deliberately - decides to get engaged in the practical learning of a particular skill, value, or competence. In non-formal education, the focus is on the learner’s interests, needs, and requests and for this reason, the syllabus and the timetable are flexible and adjustable (Council of Europe, 2012).

This type of education, however, is somehow more difficult to define because of the presence of various definitions and perspectives on it. We will look into it more deeply in the following sections.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Non-Formal Education

Among the most significant advantages of non-formal learning, is that individuals have the possibility to take up learning processes that are based on their desires, interests, and needs. This way non-formal education gives them the chance to grow naturally, at their own pace, and not according to schooling schedules, as well as a great opportunity to develop trust towards their abilities, while feeling rightful to make mistakes, and to cultivate a sense of responsibility towards their own learning and development. Furthermore, the skills acquired through these processes are not usable and useful only for employment aspects, but concern the daily-life human capabilities, motivations, and development. (AEGEE-Europe, 2011)

On the other hand, when considering the disadvantages, one can notice that non-formal activities may produce different and not always high-standard results. This can be partly attributed to the dependability of non-formal education outcomes to the level of professionalism and skill of trainers and facilitators, who do not undergo the strict scrutiny formal education professionals do before they are given their teaching duties. Other factors include the uncertainty and unsteadiness of the participants’ willingness to be active and proactive, and, sometimes, also to participants’ self-confidence issues (Types of Education, 2019).

Moreover, even if self-assessment methods lead to the obtainment of different official certificates, such as the Youthpass that “identifies and documents learning outcomes that are acquired in projects under the Erasmus+” (Education and Culture Youth in Action, 2007), these documents are not widely and universally recognized, while their very nature prevents the documentation of highly objective or quantifiable learning results.

Table 1. Characteristics of formal, informal and non-formal education

Learning processes

In non-formal learning, we find experiential learning activities which aim to develop skills and know-how. Experiential learning is a process developed by the American educational theorist David Kolb who, in 1984, provided a model learning program setting out four distinct learning styles based on a four-stage learning cycle (Reflective observation; Abstract Conceptualization; Concrete Experience; Active Experimentation).

According to Kolb, experience is the main tool through which people can learn and develop. However, not only what people experience is crucial, but mainly what they do with that experience. Kolb’s model suggests that depending on different factors, a person may enter the learning cycle at any stage but, for learning to happen, it is important they go through all four stages of the model’s matrix: actively partaking in the situation, feeling the concrete experience while being sensitive to other’s emotions at the same time, observing the situation from a different perspective before judging, making a logical critical analysis to better understand the situation (ICYE International Office, 2017).

For example, when learning how to ride a bicycle: learners who rely on reflective observation, would probably prefer to start by thinking about riding and watching another person doing it; learners who use abstract conceptualization would probably try to understand the theory behind the biking concept first; learners who learn through concrete experience would ask someone who knows how to ride a bike about some practical tips and techniques, and finally those who learn through active experimentation would jump on a bike give it a go (Clark, 2011).

Source: http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/styles/kolb.html

Two British psychologists, Peter Honey and Alan Mumford (1986), inspired by Kolb’s learning styles model, have produced a Learning-Style Questionnaire that can assess individuals’ tendencies and categorize them into four behavioral types that are related to the different preferred learning styles. Knowing one’s learning style helps individuals to make smarter decisions in adjusting the learning opportunities and their preference of best learning, increases the range and variety of experiences which are potential learning opportunities, improves learning skills and awareness (Zwanenberg, 2016).

According to Honey & Mumford model, people can be divided into 4 different learning-style categories:

1. Activists: Individuals, who learn by doing and prefer to act first and then reflect on the consequences

2. Theorists, who learn by making methodical and logical hypotheses in relation to the activities

3. Pragmatists, who learn by experimenting and putting into practice ideas and techniques to see if they work out

4. Reflectors, who learn by observing and collecting data before acting

Activists are linked to stage 1 of the matrix (feeling), reflectors are linked to stage 2 (watching), theorists are linked to stage 3 (thinking), pragmatists are linked to stage 4 (doing). Some people can use different styles for different occasions with similar results. These people are considered all-round learners or “integrated learners” (ICYE International Office, 2017).

What is important to remember is that learning styles affect people’s preferences concerning what type of activities they learn better from, and this will also influence their choice when managing or training other people. For more efficient results and to allow everyone to have the same possibilities to learn, it is best to use mixed activities that can suit all types of learners (ICYE International Office, 2017).

Characteristics of non-formal education

As already mentioned, Non-Formal Education is difficult to define. Different European platforms and institutions present it each in their specific way, some countries don’t recognize it to the same extent, while other countries don’t even accept it. In 2011, however, the European Commission brought all definitions together to arrive at a common understanding. According to the result of this process, non-formal education is recognized as an approach to education which consists of well-structured and pre-planned activities that do not take place inside formal education systems and whose design, development, implementation, and evaluation is also the responsibility of the learners, who decide actively, deliberately, and autonomously to take part into the learning process (AEGEE-Europe, 2011).

Unlike theoretical education, timetables and contents are flexible and adjustable to the learners’ needs and each participant’s inclinations are encouraged. For this reason, this type of learning is suitable and accessible for everyone (kids, youth, and adults) and, most importantly, the homogeneity of the groups is not based on one’s age but one’s interests and stimulus.

Non-formal activities allow people to collectively and consciously develop skills, capabilities, motivations, and values that are different compared to the ones systematically cultivated in schools (like intercultural awareness, leadership, self-confidence, problem-solving, etc...). For the same reason, they need different kinds of assessment, instead of exams and tests: non-formal education strongly relies, for example, on self-evaluation methods that empower and give trust to the active learners. From this overview, we can say the core of non-formal education is the focus on the learner’s needs, the idea that the learner is also a source of learning and knowledge, in that there isn’t the typical hierarchical structure we can find in formal institutions, the stress on practical experiences and outcomes, and the greater focus on skills and competences rather than theoretical information and knowledge (Peace Corps, 2004).

NON-FORMAL EDUCATION METHODS

In the field of Non-Formal Education, there are various theories, philosophies, and methods that can be used during the whole process, from analysis to planning and implementation and finally to evaluation. To choose wisely the activities to propose in a project, it’s important to decide beforehand which of the two main development approaches, or which combination of the two, will be the core of it: the asset-based approach or the problem-posing method (Peace Corps, 2004).

The first approach, i.e. the asset-based approach, highlights the strengths and the positive resources of an individual or a whole community. By focusing on what has been already achieved and on existing assets, people are encouraged to see their value and, more importantly, to understand how to put it to work fully and efficiently. This technique allows individuals not to feel overwhelmed by their deficits and existing problems, but instead to visualize themselves as resourceful and worthwhile even in difficult and adverse situations. The success of this methodology lies in the fact that people gain more self-confidence, motivation, and hope, and start believing they can be the active actors or agents of the change they pursue.

The second approach, used for the first time by the Brazilian educator Paulo Freire, known as the problem-posing method, emphasizes the critical thinking of marginalized or disadvantaged groups about specific social problems (Peace Corps, 2004).

This method consists of asking questions and encouraging people to find solutions. In this way, the awareness of those same problems can spontaneously increase. Learners are seen as capable and conscious beings who, using problem-solving skills, can seek out the possible answers to the problems presented to them. Thanks to this method, the learning process is practical, the questioners and the learners are both equally involved in the investigation of the cases presented and in taking concrete steps for the improvement of their condition (Drew, 2019).

It is to be noted that asset-based and problem approaches can coexist in the same project, since it is common to see problems and deficits arising while investigating the assets and the strengths of a community and it is useful to find already working solutions and opportunities while analyzing current problems. What is important to bear in mind is that the approach used in the beginning will affect the atmosphere and the participant’s involvement for the whole duration of the project. For this reason, it is useful to have clearly defined target groups and learning objectives while selecting the activities (Peace Corps, 2004).

For example, as we can see in the Non-Formal Learning Handbook for Volunteers and Volunteering Organisations (ICYE, May 2017), if we want to promote intercultural learning among volunteers and beneficiaries, our objective is to raise intercultural awareness, learning, and competence. Thus, some of the activities could be introducing the different countries, making presentations about habits and customs, preparing the typical food, or showing folklore dances. If we want to address children and youth at risk, our objective would be to help them develop some life skills (such as social interaction, communication skills, decision making, human values, etc...) that can be boosted through activities like storytelling, games of coordination or team building games.

NON-FORMAL EDUCATION AS A COMPLEMENT TO FORMAL EDUCATION

As described in the first section, all kinds of learning, formal, informal, and non-formal, are characterized by specific advantages and disadvantages and, most importantly, cannot provide on their own the full range of skills requested for a student,worker or any other targeted individual to be competitive. Therefore, one realizes that the winning formula is a mixture of all three, where the strengths of each compensates for the weaknesses of the others.

It is increasingly becoming evident that in the modern world, which is characterized by uncertainties and instabilities, formal learning processes are no longer able to prepare young people and adults for the dynamic and demanding reality. We are facing the urgent need to adapt the learning environments to current educational needs and, to do so, we need “the best features of both formal and non-formal education” (ICYE International Office, 2017)

The global project “Volunteers at the Interface between Formal and Non-formal Education centers” has analyzed the new economic and socio-cultural trends and based its research precisely on finding and strengthening the right balance between formal and non-formal education. Non-formal learning is especially being encouraged for its high potential activities that can inspire, motivate, and make people of all ages think out of the box. As declared in the Delors Report to UNESCO (1995), non-formal Education is an indispensable tool to survive in the XXI century. Non-formal education gives opportunity to people to overcome different obstacles in life by developing specific life skills and making them more resilient and capable when dealing with rapid social and economic changes. Moreover, when brought into the formal schooling environment, it can improve the delivery of the academic curricula, positively affect the students’ results, and increase their employability once officially active on the job market (ICYE International Office, 2017).

Even if, at first impact, it may sound complicated, non-formal education methods can easily be integrated into the school. This does not mean that teachers can avoid responding to the needs of the established curriculum or standards, but only that with flexibility and creativity they can introduce other learning styles to varying degrees. For example, they could use energizing activities when students seem bored or distracted, or ice-breaking activities with the most silent and shy pupils.

It is also possible to propose non-formal activities methods to address specific topics of the school syllabus requirements by using real-life cases, which are more relevant and understandable for students. To do so, the teacher should first make the students openly discuss the issues they feel concerned about, or which they think constitute the main problems of their community. Secondly, the teacher should incorporate the topic in one of the curriculum requirements. So, for example, to see the use of charts and graphs about the topic selected by the students. Thirdly, the students along with the teacher should design an action plan related to the topic. They could, for example, print out the graphs they have made and start an awareness campaign in their city (Peace Corps, 2004).

REFERENCES

AEGEE Europe. (2011, March 13). Non Formal Education Book, Issuu. https://issuu.com/aegee-europe/docs/nfe_book

Clark, D.R. (2011) Kolb’s Learning Styles and Experiential Learning Model. Retrieved from http://www.nwlink.com/~donclark/hrd/styles/kolb.html

Council of Europe. (2012) Compass. Manual for human rights education with young people (Rev. ed.) http://www.eycb.coe.int/compass/en/pdf/compass_2012_inside_FINAL.pdf

Drew, C. (2019, December 4). Problem Posing Education – 6 Key Characteristics. HelpfulProfessor.Com. https://helpfulprofessor.com/problem-posing-education/

ICYE International Office. (2017). Non-Formal Learning Handbook for Volunteers and Volunteering Organisations

Peace Corps (U.S) Information Collection and Exchange. (2004). Nonformal Education (NFE) manual. Purdue University

Ruby (2017, January 8) Honey and Mumford Learning Styles. The E-Learning Network. Retrieved from https://www.eln.co.uk/blog/honey-and-mumford-learning-styles